Farai Chideya essays

Farai Chideya papers Farai Chideya has achieved numerous things at 28 years of age that numerous columnists can dare to dream to accomplish. She started her vocation as an understudy at Newsweek while learning at Harvard. After her graduation, she was recruited at Newsweek as a correspondent and remained on from 1990-1994. Chideya shrouded news in Newsweek's New York and Chicago agencies, just as in the Washington department, where she secured national legislative issues, from an article named Spearing Congressional Pork, to following President Clinton as a pool correspondent on Air Force One. Before long a while later, Chideya made her progress to newswriting at MTV from 1994-1996. During this brief timeframe, Chideya additionally finished a partnership at the Freedom Forum Media Studies Center, looking at why youthful Americans are blocking out the news. She distributed a book in 1995 called Don't Believe the Hype: Cultural Misinformation About African-Americans, which is presently in its eigth printing. Utilizing insights to a great extent from government sources, she endeavored to undermine the contention that African-Americans are at the underlying foundations of issues, for example, wrongdoing, government assistance and medications. Chideya invested energy as a CNN Political Analyst during the 1996 presidential crusade. It was right now that she was named to the New York Daily News' Fantasy Team of political columnists and pundits. She showed up on programming, for example, TalkBack Live and CNN She saw the distributing of her new book, The Color of our Future: How the Nation's Most Diverse Generation is Reshaping American Culture., in 1997. That was likewise the year that she started her two current situations as an ABC News Correspondent and Editor of National Affairs at VIBE magazine. During same period, Newsweek named her to its Century Club of 100 individuals to look as we approach the year 2000. As an independent columnist, she has wri... <!

Chronic Kidney Disease: Pathology and Biochemistry

Constant Kidney Disease: Pathology and Biochemistry The kidneys are a couple of organs that capacity to expelling metabolic squanders like urea, carbon dioxide, salts, and synthetic substances from the blood and discharging these losses as pee. Kidneys additionally control the grouping of body liquids and electrolyte focuses, blood vessel pressure, emission/discharge of hormones and corrosive base parity of body liquids (Guyton Hall, 2005). The primary useful sifting unit of the kidney is the nephron. At any rate 800 thousand nephrons are in one kidney. The underlying sifting unit in the nephron is the glomerulus, and the filtrates originating from the glomerulus are framed into pee as it passes different parts in the nephron. Infections in the kidney cause countless passings and incapacities around the world (Coresh, et al., 2007). Intense renal disappointment is showed by the kidneys suddenly halting, in spite of the fact that the possibility exists that the kidneys could recoup, while in interminable kidney ailment there is a dynamic decrease in the capacity of the nephrons. All the more explicitly, interminable kidney illness is characterized as harmed or diminished kidney work estimated by a lessening in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) for a period or at least three months (Levey, et al., 2003). Beginning harm to the nephron results in compensatory reactions of the rest of the nephrons taking into consideration the continuation of freedom of blood solutes. The compensatory activity of the nephrons during early harm is believed to be a significant reason for renal harm, on the grounds that during pay the glomerular slim weight is expanded so much that harms are brought about prompting sores in the glomeruli (Arora Verelli, 2010). Ceaseless kidney ailment is additionally brought about by hypertension, diabetes, issue in veins and glomeruli, diseases, insusceptible framework issue, inherent disarranges, and urinary tract obstacles (Guyton Hall, 2005). Clinical side effects for interminable kidney ailment are not clear until the quantity of utilitarian nephrons diminishes by 70-75% (Guyton Hall, 2005). The dynamic disintegration in kidney capacity could eventually prompt end-stage renal malady where the patient must experience dialysis to expel squanders from the blood, or transplanted with another kidney. Constant kidney ailment has 5 phases dependent on the GFR (National Kidney Foundation, 2002). Patients with the stage 1-3 of the malady don't show side effects. At stage 4-5 electrolyte equalization and endocrine issue become obvious. It is accepted that the uremic issue saw at stage 5 are because of the amassing of poisons (Arora Verelli, 2010). Expanded maintenance of potassium (hyperkalemia) happens because of powerlessness of the kidneys to discharge potassium. Metabolic acidosis results from the powerlessness of the kidneys to deliver enough smelling salts important to respond with the endogenous corrosive and produce ammonium. Phosphates, sulfates, and other natural anions amass, causing huge anion holes. Metabolic acidosis builds protein corruption and amino corrosive oxidation, and diminishes egg whites amalgamation, bringing about protein-vitality unhealthiness, diminished weight, and expanded muscle shortcoming. Acidosis additionally meddles with Vitamin D digestion and min eral awkwardness bringing about renal osteodystrophy or renal bone infection. Renal bone ailment can be turned away with auspicious dietary measures and drugs like phosphate folios and calcitriol (Renal Resource Center, 2007). Skeletal and extraskeletal difficulties result from the movement of renal bone malady. In constant kidney malady, renal bone sickness is ordered into four general sorts: (1) low turnover infection or inadequate mineralization; (2) high turnover bone illness achieved by elevated levels of the parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels; (3) beta-2-microglobulin related bone ailment; and (4) blend of the 3 ailments (Arora Verelli, 2010). Analysis and the executives of constant kidney illness Ceaseless kidney ailment is analyzed by research center tests on pee and serum. Serum creatinine as a gauge of glomerular filtration rate, egg whites creatinine proportion in the pee, and assessment of pee dregs and dipstick test for erythrocytes and leukocytes are suggested (Levey, et al., 2003). Picture investigation by ultrasound can be performed for patients with manifestations of stones, contamination, obstacle of the urinary tract and having a family clinical history of polycystic kidney sickness. Serum electrolytes ought to be estimated on patients who are hypertensive, diabetic, and the individuals who have been presented to tranquilize poisonousness. Different tests incorporate urinary focus or weakening, and fermentation for chose patients who present indications of polyuria, metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, hypo-and hyperkalemia (extremely significant levels of potassium). Kidney work is evaluated by examining serum creatinine alongside a blood urea nitrogen test (Lab Tests Online, 2009). Creatinine freedom means that the effectiveness of the kidneys in sifting little atoms through of the blood. A customary and head marker of kidney harm is tireless or repeating proteinuria (Kean Eknoyan, 1999). Proteins are huge atoms, and hence they can't pass the layers of the glomeruli into the pee. Glomeruli, being adversely charged, likewise repulse proteins. Size and charge boundaries don't permit the entry of proteins into pee, except if the glomeruli are harmed (Proteinuria and microalbuminuria, 2007). Proteins can be estimated utilizing reagent strip tests for purpose of care discovery and research facility tests, including immunoassays (Carter, Tomson, Stevens, Lamb, 2006). At the point when the protein level is in excess of 3500 milligrams, broad glomeruli harm has just happened. An egg whites (or protein)- creatinine proportion higher than 30 mg egg whites/g creatinine, is anomalous since the cut-off focuses are more noteworthy than 17 mg/g in guys and in excess of 25 mg/g in females (Warram, Gearin, Laffel, Krolewski, 1996; (Jacobs, Murtaugh, Steffes, Yu, Roseman, Goetz, 2002). Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is right now the best test for identifying kidney issue. GFR is assessed utilizing a recipe that utilizes serum creatinine worth, and sexual orientation, age and weight of person. The GFR has been prescribed to be the principle rule in arranging kidney malady. Five phases of ceaseless kidney sicknesses have been distinguished dependent on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (National Kidney Foundation, 2002). Kidney harm has been proposed with ordinary or expanded GFR of > 90 mL/min per 1.73 m2, while kidneys have just bombed when the GFR enormously diminished at Signs of constant kidney malady are fluctuated and various. Increment or decline in levels of significant electrolytes phosphate, potassium and calcium. Different signs are metabolic acidosis, pericarditis, lack of healthy sustenance, neuropathies and cardiovascular difficulties (Shlipak, et al., 2005; Tonelli, et al., 2006). The treatment of constant kidney malady relies upon the phase of the infection and should concentrate on a few significant variables (Arora Verelli, 2010). The essential goal is to defer and end the movement of the ailment by treating the known hidden condition (for example hypertension, diabetes). Systolic circulatory strain, hyperlipidemia, and glycemic levels must be controlled, and utilization of angiotensin receptor blockers is suggested. Pathologic side effects ought to be treated as follows: weakness with erythropoietin; high phosphate levels with dietary methods for authoritative and limiting phosphate covers; low calcium levels with enhancements and hyperparathyroidism with nutrient D analogs or calcitriol (Arora Verelli, 2010). For uremic signs, dialysis and transplantation are suggested relying upon the phase of the infections, and the signs. Auspicious getting ready for renal transplantation is additionally vital so as to set up the patient. Reflection on module Incessant kidney malady is common around the world, with a great many individuals influenced. The survey led here shows that the sickness has been very much portrayed regarding the purpose of-care and clinical tests for finding. Ceaseless kidney malady influences the collection of particles in the blood in this way prompting a large number of unfavorable conditions. The US National Kidney Foundation has initiated endeavors to normalize and organize the various stages, analytic methodologies and treatment modalities. Clearly, ceaseless kidney infection results from different scatters. In this way it tends to be forestalled and adjusted by first forestalling and relieving the hidden reason. This makes the idea of the malady convoluted, and arrangements are additionally perplexing. What is clear is that kidney sickness is for the most part an aftereffect of way of life, since most fundamental causes like diabetes, cardiovascular infection, and hyperlipidemia are for the most part because of ways of life. An impediment in the distributions that were investigated was the absence of clear proposals on how the beginning of interminable kidney ailment can be forestalled, and what explicit meds can prompt fix of the glomeruli and the nephrons after harm has happened. Obviously, a patient with interminable kidney malady is burdened with the information that a total fix is beyond the realm of imagination; and it just sets aside a matter of effort for one to have the end-stage renal infection. The test for the clinical network is to thought of a reasonable preventive procedure against kidney malady, and to have other long haul choices beside dialysis or organ transplantation.

Outlining and Writing an Analytical Essay

Outlining and Writing an Analytical Essay A blank page is every writers enemy. Whether youre a professional writer or a rookie at the task, the blank page is intimidatingâ€"especially when youre assigned an analytical essay. Thats why an outline is a writers best friend, even if youre only a writer for the day. By using an outline, you have a place to start and a format to follow. Not writing an analytical essay? This outline will still do most of the hard work for you in the writing process.What is an analytical essay?An analytical essay is an essay that specifically analyzes a document, which is generally textual or visual media. It concentrates on how something is done, specifically how a text is written or how a work is made. It can go by different names, such as Rhetorical Analysis or Critical Essay, but its important to remember that an analytical essay is not a summary and it is not an argumentative essay. You are not trying to convince anyone to change his or her mind. You are explaining how an author or creator port rayed an aspect of his or her work.For example, you could write an analytical essay about how George Lucas used color to reflect a characters innocence in the original Star Wars trilogy. This will lead you to analyzing different colors the main characters are wearing, such as black, white, gray, brown, or a mixture. Once you conduct the research to gain a thorough understanding of the topic, you can begin using the outline to shape your essay.What does an analytical essay look like?An analytical essay is basically an expanded five-paragraph essay containing an introduction, body, and conclusion, with specific components required for each section.Basic outline of an Analytical Essay.IntroductionThe introductions significance in any essay shouldnt be underestimated. Your first goal in writing it is attracting the readers interest with a hook. Then, you should use it to lay the groundwork for what is to come, plainly state your thesis, and provide a brief explanation of what evidence y ou found to help you arrive at that thesis.Your introduction should have three parts:The hookThe hook is the very first sentence in your essay and has a simple yet important role of hooking your readers into reading further. Often, the hook is a great place to add background details that will interest your readers, such as a statistic or anecdote. You could also pose a question, state relevant facts, or introduce controversy.Many writers often find it easier to determine the hook after everything else is written. By doing so, you have a more complete view of your essay and can find a fitting hook that encapsulates it in its entirety.For example, if you were writing the Star Wars-based analysis that was proposed earlier, you could say:Black and white are often colors portraying good and evil throughout literature and film, and the original Star Wars trilogy was not exempt from this visual symbolism.This example introduces the essay topic of visual symbolism and explains the backgroun d of color symbolism in texts and media. Once these things are firmly established, you are ready to propose your thesis.The thesis statementThe thesis statement is the most important sentence in your entire essay because it narrows your broad topic into a specific purpose. Writing a strong thesis will also help you to outline the rest of your essay and to tell your reader what to expect.How do you write a great, cohesive thesis statement? You do it by combining the goal of your essay with your analysis, and how youre going to back it up.Returning to our Star Wars analytical essay example:George Lucas uses color to reflect a characters innocence and characterization in the original Star Wars trilogy through dressing innocent characters in white, those on the dark side in all black, and neutral characters in both black and white.SupportIn every five-paragraph essay, you need to include a brief statement of supporting facts as part of the thesis statement to show how you are going to b ack up your thesis. Keep in mind that in longer essays, the thesis statement may be more than one sentence. In these cases, each supporting fact may have its own sentence or sentences. Please note that these supporting facts must be further detailed in the rest of your essay.It does not matter how many supporting facts your essay has or how many paragraphs go into each reason in the body of the essay. This is dependent on what you need to say, how in-depth the essay should be, and if the essay has a required length. Remember that every supporting fact mentioned in your thesis should be included in further detail within the body of your essay.BodyThe body is the framework or support structure for your thesis statement, and will be a significant part of your essays word count. However, dont attempt to make the body one big section; it can be broken down into mini sections and paragraphs to make it more logical and readable. These mini sections are dependent on the supporting facts you are using to back up your thesis statement. If your analytical essay uses a five-paragraph essay model, then each supporting fact (or mini section) should be one paragraph long.Additionally, each paragraph should have four components:ClaimEvidenceConnectionTransitionHowever, if the essay is longer than a traditional five-paragraph essay, each supporting fact will be more than one paragraph long, but each paragraph should still contain the four components.ClaimA claim is the topic sentence for the paragraph, and usually opens it. Often, it is a reworded version of a supporting fact from the thesis, but in longer essays it may be something else. For our example topic, you might write:Lucas often dresses his innocent characters in white clothing.This would tell the reader that the rest of the paragraph would be about Star Wars characters who wore white.EvidenceEvidence is what supports your claim and thesis through details of information youve gleaned while researching. This is the me at of your essay and will provide a solid framework for your thesis.As an example for our topic, you might write:In Return of the Jedi, Luke wears black, as he confronts the truth about his father.ConnectionThe connection, or the why, is what follows a piece of evidence. You should never use a quote, paraphrase, or example without explaining why it is important. This connection is what ties the evidence and claim together to make a cohesive analysis.For our example topic, you might draw a connection this way:This signifies that Luke was allowing the dark side to influence his thoughts and actions.TransitionAfter you have connected your evidence and claim, you are ready to move on to the next claim or paragraph. To do so, you must include a logical transition. This transition can be at the end of your prior paragraph, or at the beginning of the new one, depending on the flow of your paragraphs.In our example, we might use the following as a transition at the beginning of the next par agraph.Likewise, we see Anakin under this same dark influence when he first appears in the color black.ConclusionThe conclusion is the final punch of your analytical essay. This is where you will wrap up your essay, restate your main points, and often reword your thesis with the understanding that the reader has seen your evidence. This is the last thing your reader will read, so make it powerful.For our example topic, you might write something like this:Throughout Star Wars, visual symbolism reflects a characters personality and innocence to the reality of the evil in the world. Often, characters who wore white, such as Luke and Leia, were portrayed as innocent in comparison to Darth Vader, who wore black. To show this, as Luke became more aware of evil, Lucas moved his costume through a color scheme of white to neutral and finally to black, as a reflection of his loss of innocence. Lucas uses this powerful visual technique to represent a characters journey symbolically.After worki ng through the various components of an analytical essay, the actual writing process should go smoothly (and quickly!). In fact, the components of the essay dont even have to be written in chronological order once youve written a solid introduction with a good thesis, and have researched the topic thoroughly.

Economic Influence Over Presidential Election Outcomes

It seems that during every presidential election year we are  told that jobs and the economy will be pivotal issues. Its commonly assumed that an incumbent president has little to worry about if the economy is good and there are lots of jobs. If the opposite holds true, however, the president should prepare for life on the rubber chicken circuit. Testing Conventional Wisdom of Presidential Elections and The Economy I decided to examine this conventional wisdom to see if it holds true and to see what it can tell us about the future presidential elections. Since 1948, there have been nine presidential elections that have pitted an incumbent president against a challenger. Out of those nine, I chose to examine six elections. I decided to disregard two of those elections where the challenger was considered too extreme to be elected: Barry Goldwater in 1964 and George S. McGovern in 1972. Out of the remaining presidential elections, incumbents won four elections while challengers won three. To see what impact jobs and the economy had on the election, well consider two important economic indicators: the growth rate of real GNP (the economy) and the unemployment rate (jobs). Well compare the two-year vs. the four-year and previous four-year performance of those variables in order to compare how Jobs The Economy performed during the incumbents presidency and how it performed relative to the previous administration. First, well look at the performance of Jobs The Economy in the three of the cases in which the incumbent won. Be sure to continue to Page 2 of Presidential Elections and the Economy. Out of our six chosen incumbent presidential elections, we had three where the incumbent won. Well look at those three, starting with the percentage of the electoral vote each candidate collected. 1956 Election: Eisenhower (57.4%) v. Stevenson (42.0%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 4.54% 4.25% Four Year 3.25% 4.25% Previous Administration 4.95% 4.36% Although Eisenhower won in a landslide, the economy had actually performed better under the Truman administration than it did during Eisenhowers first term. Real GNP, however, grew at an amazing 7.14% per year in 1955, which certainly helped Eisenhower get reelected. 1984 Election: Reagan (58.8%) v. Mondale (40.6%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 5.85% 8.55% Four Year 3.07% 8.58% Previous Administration 3.28% 6.56% Again, Reagan won in a landslide, which certainly had nothing to do with the unemployment statistics. The economy came out of recession just in time for Reagans reelection bid, as real GNP grew a robust 7.19% in Reagans final year of his first term. 1996 Election: Clinton (49.2%) v. Dole (40.7%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 3.10% 5.99% Four Year 3.22% 6.32% Previous Administration 2.14% 5.60% Clintons re-election was not quite a landslide, and we see quite a different pattern than the other two incumbent victories. Here we see fairly consistent economic growth during Clintons first term as President, but not a consistently improving unemployment rate. It would appear that the economy grew first, then the rate of unemployment decreased, which we would expect since the unemployment rate is a lagging indicator. If we average out the three incumbent victories, we see the following pattern: Incumbent (55.1%) v. Challenger (41.1%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 4.50% 6.26% Four Year 3.18% 6.39% Previous Administration 3.46% 5.51% It would appear then from this very limited sample that voters are more interested in how the economy has improved during the tenure of the presidency than they are in comparing the performance of the current administration with past administrations. Well see if this pattern holds true for the three elections where the incumbent lost. Be sure to continue to Page 3 of Presidential Elections and the Economy. Now for the three incumbents who lost: 1976 Election: Ford (48.0%) v. Carter (50.1%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 2.57% 8.09% Four Year 2.60% 6.69% Previous Administration 2.98% 5.00% This election is quite an unusual one to examine, as Gerald Ford replaced Richard Nixon after Nixons resignation. In addition, we are comparing the performance of a Republican incumbent (Ford) to a previous Republican administration. Looking at these economic indicators, it is easy to see why the incumbent lost. The economy was in a slow decline during this period and the unemployment rate jumped sharply. Given the performance of the economy during Fords tenure, its a little surprising that this election was a close as it was. 1980 Election: Carter (41.0%) v. Reagan  (50.7%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 1.47% 6.51% Four Year 3.28% 6.56% Previous Administration 2.60% 6.69% In 1976, Jimmy Carter defeated an incumbent president. In 1980, he was the defeated incumbent president. It would appear that the unemployment rate had little to do with Reagans landslide victory over Carter, as the rate of unemployment improved over Carters presidency. However, the last two years of the Carter administration saw the economy grow at a paltry 1.47% per annum. The 1980 Presidential election suggests that economic growth, and not the unemployment rate, can bring down an incumbent. 1992 Election: Bush (37.8%) v. Clinton (43.3%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 1.58% 6.22% Four Year 2.14% 6.44% Previous Administration 3.78% 7.80% Another unusual election, as we are comparing the performance of a Republican president (Bush) to another Republican administration (Reagans second term). The strong performance of third party candidate Ross Perot caused Bill Clinton to win the election with only 43.3% of the popular vote, a level usually associated with the losing candidate. But republicans who believe that Bushs defeat lies solely on the shoulders of Ross Perot should think again. Although the unemployment rate decreased during the Bush administration, the economy grew at a paltry 1.58% during the final two years of the Bush administration. The economy was in recession during the early 1990s and voters took out their frustrations on the incumbent. If we average out the three incumbent losses, we see the following pattern: Incumbent (42.3%) v. Challenger (48.0%) Real GNP Growth (Economy) Unemployment Rate (Jobs) Two Year 1.87% 6.97% Four Year 2.67% 6.56% Previous Administration 3.12% 6.50% In the final section, well examine the performance of Real GNP growth and the unemployment rate under George W. Bushs administration, to see if economic factors helped or harmed Bushs reelection chances in 2004. Be sure to continue to Page 4 of Presidential Elections and the Economy. Lets consider the performance of jobs, as measured by the unemployment rate, and the economy as measured by the growth rate of real GDP, under George W. Bushs first term as president. Using data up to and including the first three months of 2004, we will form our comparisons. First, the growth rate of real GNP: Real GNP Growth Unemployment Rate Clintons 2nd Term 4.20% 4.40% 2001 0.5% 4.76% 2002 2.2% 5.78% 2003 3.1% 6.00% 2004 (First Quarter) 4.2% 5.63% First 37 Months Under Bush 2.10% 5.51% We see that both real GNP growth and the unemployment rate were worse under the Bush administration than they were under Clinton in his second term as President. As we can see from our real GNP growth statistics, the growth rate of real GNP has been rising steadily since the recession at the beginning of decade, whereas the unemployment rate is continuing to get worse. By looking at these trends, we can compare this administrations performance on jobs and the economy to the six we have already seen: Lower Economic Growth than the Previous Administration: This occurred in two cases where the incumbent won (Eisenhower, Reagan) and two cases where the incumbent lost (Ford, Bush)Economy Improved In the Last Two Years: This occurred in two of the cases where the incumbent won (Eisenhower, Reagan) and none of the cases where the incumbent lost.Higher Unemployment Rate than the Previous Administration: This occurred in two of the cases where the incumbent won (Reagan, Clinton) and one case where the incumbent lost (Ford).Higher Unemployment Rate in the Last Two Years: This occurred in none of the cases where the incumbent won. In the case of the Eisenhower and Reagan first term administrations, there was almost no difference in the two-year and full-term unemployment rates, so we must be careful not to read too much into this. This did, however, occur in one case where the incumbent lost (Ford). While it may be popular in some circles to compare the performance of the economy under Bush Sr. to that of Bush Jr., judging by our chart, they have little in common. The biggest difference is that W. Bush was fortunate enough to have his recession right at the beginning of his presidency, while the senior Bush was not so lucky. The performance of the economy seems to fall somewhere in between the Gerald Ford administration and the first Reagan administration. Assuming that we are back in pre-election 2004, this data alone would have made it difficult to predict whether George W. Bush would end up in the Incumbents Who Won or the Incumbents who Lost column. Of course, Bush did end up winning reelection with just 50.7% of the vote to John Kerrys 48.3%. Ultimately, this exercise leads us to believe that conventional wisdom - particularly that surrounding presidential elections and the economy - is not the strongest predictor of election outcomes.

Introduction to Behavioral Economics

Behavioral economics is, in a way, at the intersection of economics and psychology. In fact, the behavioral in behavioral economics can be thought of as the analog of the behavioral in behavioral psychology.   On one hand, traditional economic theory assumes that people are perfectly rational, patient, computationally proficient little economic robots that know objectively what makes them happy and make choices that maximize this happiness. (Even if traditional economists acknowledge that people aren’t perfect utility-maximizers, they usually argue that the deviations are random rather than showing evidence of consistent biases.) How Behavioral Economics Differs From Traditional Economic Theory Behavioral economists, on the other hand, know better. They aim to develop models which account for the facts that people procrastinate, are impatient, aren’t always good decision-makers when decisions are hard (and sometimes even avoid making decisions altogether), go out of their way to avoid what feels like a loss, care about things like fairness in addition to economic gain, are subject to psychological biases which make them interpret information in biased ways, and so on. These deviations from traditional theory are necessary if economists are to understand empirically how people make decisions about what to consume, how much to save, how hard to work, how much schooling to get, etc. Furthermore, if economists understand the biases that people exhibit that lower their objective happiness, they can put on a bit of a prescriptive, or normative, hat in either a policy or a general life advice sense. The History of Behavioral Economics Technically speaking, behavioral economics was first acknowledged by Adam Smith back in the eighteenth century, when he noted that human psychology is imperfect and that these imperfections could have an impact on economic decisions. This idea was mostly forgotten, however, until the Great Depression, when economists such as Irving Fisher and Vilfredo Pareto started thinking about the human factor in economic decision-making as a potential explanation for the stock market crash of 1929 and the events that transpired after. Economist Herbert Simon officially took up the behavioral economics cause in 1955 when he coined the term bounded rationality as a way to acknowledge that humans dont possess infinite decision-making capabilities. Unfortunately, Simons ideas werent initially given a lot of attention (though Simon did win a Nobel Prize in 1978) until a couple of decades later. Behavioral economics as a significant field of economic research is often thought to have started with the work of psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky. In 1979, Kahneman and Tversky published a paper entitled Prospect Theory that offers a framework for how people frame economic outcomes as gains and losses and how this framing affects peoples economic decisions and choices. Prospect theory, or the idea that people dislike losses more than they like equivalent gains, is still one of the main pillars of behavioral economics, and it is consistent with a number of observed biases that traditional models of utility and risk aversion cannot explain. Behavioral economics has come a long way since the initial work of Kahneman and Tversky- the first conference on behavioral economics was held at the University of Chicago in 1986, David Laibson became the first official behavioral economics professor in 1994, and the Quarterly Journal of Economics devoted an entire issue to behavioral economics in 1999. That said, behavioral economics is still a very new field, so there is a lot more left to learn.

Historical Development of Nursing Free Essays

string(191) " of emotions and illness, communication, interpersonal relationships, spiritual goals, therapeutic environment, individuality, optimal goals, use of community resources, and role of society\." Historical Development of Nursing Timeline Create a 700- to 1,050-word timeline paper of the historical development of nursing science, starting with Florence Nightingale and continuing to the present. Format the timeline however you wish, but the word count and assignment requirements must be met. Include the following in your timeline: †¢ Explain the historical development of nursing science by citing specific years, theories, theorists, and events in the history of nursing. We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Development of Nursing or any similar topic only for you Order Now Explain the relationship between nursing science and the profession. †¢ Include the influences on nursing science of other disciplines, such as philosophy, religion, education, anthropology, the social sciences, and psychology. Prepare to discuss your timeline with your Learning Team or in class. Format all references consistent with APA guidelines. Copyright  © 2013 Penn Nursing Science, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing http://www. nursing. upenn. edu/nhhc/Pages/AmericanNursingIntroduction. aspx http://www. nursing. penn. edu/nhhc/Welcome%20Page%20Content/American%20Nursing. pdf Nursing Theories. The Base for Professional Nursing Practice, Sixth Edition Chapter 2: Nursing Theory and Clinical Practice ISBN: 9780135135839  Author: Julia B. GeorgeRN, PhD copyright  © 2011  Pearson Education lorence Nightingale believed that the force for healing resides within the human being and that, if the environment is appropriately supportive, humans will seek to heal th emselves. Her 13 canons indicate the areas of environment of concern to nursing. These are ventilation and warming, health of houses (pure air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness, and light), petty management (today known as continuity of care), noise, variety, taking food, what food, bed and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, chattering hopes and advices, and observation of the sick. Hildegard E. Peplau focused on the interpersonal relationship between the nurse and the patient. The three phases of this relationship are orientation, working, and termination. The relationship is initiated by the patient’s felt need and termination occurs when the need is met. Both the nurse and the patient grow as a result of their interaction. Virginia Henderson first defined nursing as doing for others what they lack the strength, will, or knowledge to do for themselves and then identified 14 components of care. These components provide a guide to identifying areas in which a person may lack the strength, will, or knowledge to meet personal needs. They include breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, moving, sleeping and resting, dressing and undressing appropriately, maintaining body temperature, keeping clean and protecting the skin, avoiding dangers and injury to others, communicating, worshiping, working, playing, and learning. Dorothea E. Orem identified three theories of self-care, self-care deficit, and nursing systems. The ability of the person to meet daily requirements is known as self-care, and carrying out those activities is self-care agency. Parents serve as dependent care agents for their children. The ability to provide self-care is influenced by basic conditioning factors including but not limited to age, gender, and developmental state. Self-care needs are partially determined by the self-care requisites, which are categorized as universal (air, water, food, elimination, activity and rest, solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention, function within social groups), developmental, and health deviation (needs arising from injury or illness and from efforts to treat the injury or illness). The total demands created by the self-care requisites are identified as therapeutic self-care demand. When the therapeutic self-care demand exceeds self-care agency, a self-care deficit exists, and nursing is needed. Based on the needs, the nurse designs nursing systems that are wholly compensatory (the nurse provides all needed care), partly compensatory (the nurse and the patient provide care together), or supportive-educative (the nurse provides needed support and education for the patient to exercise self-care). Dorothy E. Johnson stated that nursing’s area of concern is the behavioral system that consists of seven subsystems. The subsystems are attachment or affiliative, dependency, ingestive, eliminative, sexual, aggressive, and achievement. The behaviors for each of the subsystems occur as a result of the drive, set, choices, and goal of the subsystem. The purpose of the behaviors is to reduce tensions and keep the behavioral system in balance. Ida Jean Orlando described a disciplined nursing process. Her process is initiated by the patient’s behavior. This behavior engenders a reaction in the nurse, described as an automatic perception, thought, or feeling. The nurse shares the reaction with the patient, identifying it as the nurse’s perception, thought, or feeling, and seeking validation of the accuracy of the reaction. Once the nurse and the patient have agreed on the immediate need that led to the patient’s behavior and to the action to be taken by the nurse to meet that need, the nurse carries out a deliberative action. Any action taken by the nurse for reasons other than meeting the patient’s immediate need is an automatic action. Lydia E. Hall believed that persons over the age of 16 who were past the acute stage of illness required a different focus for their care than during the acute stage. She described the circles of care, core, and cure. Activities in the care circle belong solely to nursing and involve bodily care and comfort. Activities in the core circle are shared with all members of the health care team and involve the person and therapeutic use of self. Hall believed the drive to recovery must come from within the person. Activities in the cure circle also are shared with other members of the health care team and may include the patient’s family. The cure circle focuses on the disease and the medical care. Faye G. Abdellah sought to change the focus of care from the disease to the patient and thus proposed patient-centered approaches to care. She identified 21 nursing problems, or areas vital to the growth and functioning of humans that require support from nurses when persons are for some reason limited in carrying out the activities needed to provide such growth. These areas are hygiene and comfort, activity (including exercise, rest, and sleep), safety, body mechanics, oxygen, nutrition, elimination, fluid and electrolyte balance, recognition of physiological responses to disease, regulatory mechanisms, sensory functions, emotions, interrelatedness of emotions and illness, communication, interpersonal relationships, spiritual goals, therapeutic environment, individuality, optimal goals, use of community resources, and role of society. You read "Historical Development of Nursing" in category "Essay examples" Ernestine Wiedenbach proposed a prescriptive theory that involves the nurse’s central purpose, prescription to fulfill that purpose, and the realities that influence the ability to fulfill the central purpose (the nurse, the patient, the goal, the means, and the framework or environment). Nursing involves the identification of the patient’s need for help, the ministration of help, and validation that the efforts made were indeed helpful. Her principles of helping indicate the nurse should look for patient behaviors that are not consistent with what is expected, should continue helping efforts in spite of encountering difficulties, and should recognize personal limitations and seek help from others as needed. Nursing actions may be reflex or spontaneous and based on sensations, conditioned or automatic and based on perceptions, impulsive and based on assumptions, or deliberate or responsible and based on realization, insight, design, and decision that involves discussion and joint planning with the patient. Joyce Travelbee was concerned with the interpersonal process between the professional nurse and that nurse’s client, whether an individual, family, or community. The functions of the nurse–client, or human-to-human, relationship are to prevent or cope with illness or suffering and to find meaning in illness or suffering. This relationship requires a disciplined, intellectual approach, with the nurse employing a therapeutic use of self. The five phases of the human-to-human relationship are encounter, identities, empathy, sympathy, and rapport. Myra Estrin Levine described adaptation as the process by which conservation is achieved, with the purpose of conservation being integrity, or preservation of the whole of the person. Adaptation is based on past experiences of effective responses (historicity), the use of responses specific to the demands being made (specificity), and more than one level of response (redundancy). Adaptation seeks the best fit between the person and the environment. The principles of conservation deal with conservation of energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity of the individual. Imogene M. King presented both a systems-based conceptual framework of personal, interpersonal, and social systems and a theory of goal attainment. The concepts of the theory of goal attainment are interaction, perception, communication, transaction, self, role, stress, growth and development, time, and personal space. The nurse and the client usually meet as strangers. Each brings to this meeting perceptions and judgments about the situation and the other; each acts and then reacts to the other’s action. The reactions lead to interaction, which, when effective, leads to transaction or movement toward mutually agreed-on goals. She emphasizes that both the nurse and the patient bring important knowledge and information to this goal-attainment process. Martha E. Rogers identified the basic science of nursing as the Science of Unitary Human Beings. The human being is a whole, not a collection of parts. She presented the human being and the environment as energy fields that are integral with each other. The human being does not have an energy field but is an energy field. These fields can be identified by their pattern, described as a distinguishing characteristic that is perceived as a single wave. These patterns occur in a pandimensional world. Rogers’s principles are resonancy, or continuous change to higher frequency; helicy, or unpredictable movement toward increasing diversity; and integrality, or the continuous mutual process of the human field and the environmental field. Sister Callista Roy proposed the Roy Adaptation Model. The person or group responds to stimuli from the internal or external environment through control processes or coping mechanisms identified as the regulator and cognator (stabilizer and innovator for the group) subsystems. The regulator processes are essentially automatic, while the cognator processes involve perception, learning, judgment, and emotion. The results of the processing by these coping mechanisms are behaviors in one of four modes. These modes are the physiological–physical mode (oxygenation; nutrition; elimination; activity and rest; protection; senses; fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance; and endocrine function for individuals and resource adequacy for groups), self-concept–group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode. These behaviors may be either adaptive (promoting the integrity of the human system) or ineffective (not promoting such integrity). The nurse assesses the behaviors in each of the modes and identifies those adaptive behaviors that need support and those ineffective behaviors that require intervention. For each of these behaviors, the nurse then seeks to identify the associated stimuli. The stimulus most directly associated with the behavior is the focal stimulus; all other stimuli that are verified as influencing the behavior are contextual stimuli. Any stimuli that may be influencing the behavior but that have not been verified as doing so are residual stimuli. Once the stimuli are identified, the nurse, in cooperation with the patient, plans and carries out interventions to alter stimuli and support adaptive behaviors. The effectiveness of the actions taken is evaluated. Betty Neuman developed the Neuman Systems Model. Systems have three environments—the internal, the external, and the created environment. Each system, whether an individual or a group, has several structures. The basic structure or core is where the energy resources reside. This core is protected by lines of resistance that in turn are surrounded by the normal line of defense and finally the flexible line of defense. Each of the structures consists of the five variables of physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual characteristics. Each variable is influenced by intrapersonal, interpersonal, and extrapersonal factors. The system seeks a state of equilibrium that may be disrupted by stressors. Stressors, either existing or potential, first encounter the flexible line of defense. If the flexible line of defense cannot counteract the stressor, then the normal line of defense is activated. If the normal line of defense is breached, the stressor enters the system and leads to a reaction, associated with the lines of resistance. This reaction is what is usually termed symptoms. If the lines of resistance allow the stressor to reach the core, depletion of energy resources and death are threatened. In the Neuman Systems Model, there are three levels of prevention. Primary prevention occurs before a stressor enters the system and causes a reaction. Secondary prevention occurs in response to the symptoms, and tertiary prevention seeks to support maintenance of stability and to prevent future occurrences. Kathryn E. Barnard’s focus is on the circumstances that enhance the development of the young child. In her Child Health Assessment Interaction Model, the key components are the child, the caregiver, the environment, and the interactions between child and caregiver. Contributions made by the child include temperament and ability to regulate and by the caregiver physical health, mental health, coping, and level of education. The environment includes both animate and inanimate resources. In assessing interaction, the parent is assessed in relation to sensibility to cues, fostering emotional growth, and fostering cognitive growth. The infant is assessed in relation to clarity of cue given and responsiveness to parent. Josephine E. Paterson and Loretta T. Zderad presented humanistic nursing. Humans are seen as becoming through choices, and health is a personal value of more-being and well-being. Humanistic nursing involves dialogue, community, and phenomenologic nursology. Dialogue occurs through meeting the other, relating with the other, being in presence together, and sharing through call and response. Community is the sense of â€Å"we. † Phenomenologic nursology involves the nurse preparing to know another, having intuitive responses to another, learning about the other scientifically, synthesizing information about the other with information already known, and developing a truth that is both uniquely personal and generally applicable. Madeleine M. Leininger provided a guide to the inclusion of culture as a vital aspect of nursing practice. Her Sunrise Model posits that important dimensions of culture and social structure are technology, religion, philosophy, kinship and other related social factors, cultural values and lifeways, politics, law, economics, and education within the context of language and environment. All of these influence care patterns and expressions that impact the health or well-being of individuals, families, groups, and institutions. The diverse health systems include the folk care systems and the professional care systems that are linked by nursing. To provide culture congruent care, nursing decisions and actions should seek to provide culture care preservation or maintenance, culture care accommodation or negotiation, or culture care repatterning or restructuring. Margaret Newman described health as expanding consciousness. Important concepts are consciousness (the information capacity of the system), pattern (movement, diversity, and rhythm of the whole), pattern recognition (identification within the observer of the whole of another), and transformation (change). Health and disease are seen as reflections of the larger whole rather than as different entities. She proposed (with Sime and Corcoran-Perry) the unitary–transformative paradigm in which human beings are viewed as unitary phenomenon. These phenomenon are identified by pattern, and change is unpredictable, toward diversity, and transformative. Stages of disorganization, or choice points, lead to change, and health is the evolving pattern of the whole as the system moves to higher levels of consciousness. The nurse enters into process with a client and does not serve as a problem solver. Jean Watson described nursing as human science and human care. Her clinical caritas processes include practicing loving-kindness and equanimity within a context of caring consciousness; being authentically present and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and one-being-cared-for; cultivating one’s own spiritual practice and transpersonal self, developing and sustaining helping-trusting in an authentic caring relationship; being present to and supportive of the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with the deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for; creatively using self and all ways of knowing as a part of the caring process to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices; engaging in a genuine teaching-learning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning while attempting to stay within other’s frame of reference; creating healing environments at all levels, physical as well as nonphysical, within a subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby the potentials of wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are enhanced; assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, to potentiate alignment of mind/body/spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence; opening and attending to spiritual-mysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; and soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for. These caritas processes occur within a transpersonal caring relationship and a caring occasion and caring moment as the nurse and other come together and share with each other. The transpersonal caring relationship seeks to provide mental and spiritual growth for both participants while seeking to restore or improve the harmony and unity within the personhood of the other. Rosemarie Rizzo Parse developed the theory of Humanbecoming within the simultaneity paradigm that views human beings as developing meaning through freedom to choose and as more than and different from a sum of parts. Her practice methodology has three dimensions, each with a related process. The first is illuminating meaning, or explicating, or making clear through talking about it, what was, is, and will be. The second is synchronizing rhythms, or dwelling with or being immersed with the process of connecting and separating within the rhythms of the exchange between the human and the universe. The third is mobilizing transcendence, or moving beyond or moving toward what is envisioned, the moment to what has not yet occurred. In the theory of Humanbecoming, the nurse is an interpersonal guide, with the responsibility for decision making (or making of choices) residing in the client. The nurse provides support but not counseling. However, the traditional role of teaching does fall within illuminating meaning, and serving as a change agent is congruent with mobilizing transcendence. Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain presented the theory of Modeling and Role-Modeling. Both modeling and role-modeling involve an art and a science. Modeling requires the nurse to seek an understanding of the client’s view of the world. The art of modeling involves the use of empathy in developing this understanding. The science of modeling involves the use of the nurse’s knowledge in analyzing the information collected to create the model. Role-modeling seeks to facilitate health. The art of role-modeling lies in individualizing the facilitations, while the science lies in the use of the nurse’s theoretical knowledge base to plan and implement care. The aims of intervention are to build trust, promote the client’s positive orientation of self, promote the client’s perception of being in control, promote the client’s strengths, and set mutual health-directed goals. The client has self-care knowledge about what his needs are and self-care resources to help meet these needs and takes self-care action to use the resources to meet the needs. In addition, a major motivation for human behavior is the drive for affiliated individuation, or having a personal identity while being connected to others. The individual’s ability to mobilize resources is identified as adaptive potential. Adaptive potential may be identified as adaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resources are utilized appropriately), maladaptive equilibrium (a nonstress state in which resource utilization is placing one or more subsystems in jeopardy), arousal (a stress state in which the client is having difficulty mobilizing resources), or impoverishment (a stress state in which resources are diminished or depleted). Interventions differ according to the adaptive potential. Those in adaptive equilibrium can be encouraged to continue and may require only facilitation of their self-care actions. Those in maladaptive equilibrium present the challenge of seeing no reason to change since they are in equilibrium. Here motivation strategies to seek to change are needed. Those in arousal are best supported by actions that facilitate change and support individuation; these are likely to include teaching, guidance, direction, and other assistance. Those in impoverishment have strong affiliation needs, need their internal strengths promoted, and need to have resources provided. Nola J. Pender developed the Health Promotion Model (revised) with the goal of achieving outcomes of health-promoting behavior. Areas identified to help understand personal choices made in relation to health-promoting behavior include perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers to action, perceived self-efficacy (or ability to carry out the action), activity-related affect, interpersonal influences, situation influences, commitment to a plan of action, and immediate competing demands and preferences. Patricia Benner described expert nursing practice and identified five stages of skill acquisition as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert. She discusses a number of concepts in relation to these stages, including agency, assumptions, expectations and set, background meaning, caring, clinical forethought, clinical judgment, clinical knowledge, clinical reasoning, clinical transitions, common meanings, concern, coping, skill acquisition, domains of practice, embodied intelligence, embodied knowledge, emotions, ethical judgment, experience, graded qualitative distinctions, intuition, knowing the patient, maxims, paradigm cases and personal knowledge, reasoning-in-transition, social embeddedness, stress, temporality, thinking-in-action, and unplanned practices. Juliet Corbin and Anselm L. Strauss developed the Chronic Illness Trajectory Framework, in which they describe the course of illness and the actions taken to shape that course. The phases of the framework are pretrajectory, trajectory onset, stable, unstable, acute, crisis, comeback, downward, and dying. A trajectory projection is one’s personal vision of the illness, and a trajectory scheme is the plan of actions to shape the course of the illness, control associated symptoms, and handle disability. Important also are one’s biography or life story and one’s everyday life activities (similar to activities of daily living). Anne Boykin and Savina Schoenhofer present nursing as caring in a grand theory that may be used in combination with other theories. Persons are caring by virtue of being human; are caring, moment to moment; are whole and complete in the moment; and are already complete while growing in completeness. Personhood is the process of living grounded in caring and is enhanced through nurturing relationships. Nursing as a discipline is a being, knowing, living, and valuing response to a social call. As a profession, nursing is based on a social call and uses a body of knowledge to respond to that call. The focus of nursing is nurturing persons living in caring and growing in caring. This nurturing occurs in the nursing situation, or the lived experience shared between the nurse and the nursed, in which personhood is enhanced. The call for nursing is not based on a need or a deficit and thus focuses on helping the other celebrate the fullness of being rather than seeking to fix something. Boykin and Schoenhofer encourage the use of storytelling to make evident the service of nursing. Katharine Kolcaba developed a comfort theory in which she describes comfort, comfort care, comfort measures, and comfort needs as well as health-seeking behavior, institutional integrity, and intervening variables. She speaks of comfort as physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural and describes technical comfort measures, coaching for comfort, and comfort food for the soul. Ramona Mercer describes the process of becoming a mother in the four stages of commitment, attachment, and preparation; acquaintance, learning, and physical restoration; moving toward a new normal; and achievement of the maternal identity. The stages occur with the three nested living environments of family and friends, community, and society at large. Afaf Meleis, in her theory of transitions, identifies four types of transitions: developmental, situational, health–illness, and organizational. Properties of the transition experience include awareness, engagement, change and difference, time span, critical points, and events. Personal conditions include meanings, cultural beliefs and attitudes, socioeconomic status, and preparation and knowledge. Community conditions include family support, information available, health care resources, and role models. Process indicators are feeling connected, interacting, location, and being situated and developing confidence and coping. Outcome indicators include mastery and fluid integrative processes. Merle H. Mishel describes uncertainty in illness with the three major themes of antecedents of uncertainty, appraisal of uncertainty, and coping with uncertainty. Antecedents of uncertainty are the stimuli frame, including symptom pattern, event familiarity, and event congruence; cognitive capacity or informational processing ability; and structure providers, such as education, social support, and credible authorities. Appraisal of uncertainty includes both inference (use of past experience to evaluate an event) and illusion (creating beliefs from uncertainty with a positive outlook). Coping with uncertainty includes danger, opportunity, coping, and adaptation. The Reconceptualized Uncertainty in Illness Theory adds self-organization and probabilistic thinking and changes the goal from return to previous level of functioning to growth to a new value system. Each of these models or theories will be applied to clinical practice with the following case study: May Allenski, an 84-year-old White female, had emergency femoral-popliteal bypass surgery two days ago. She has severe peripheral vascular disease, and a clot blocked 90% of the circulation to her right leg one week ago. The grafts were taken from her left leg, so there are long incisions in each leg. She lives in a small town about 75 miles from the medical center. The initial clotting occurred late on Friday night; she did not see a doctor until Monday. The first physician referred her to a vascular specialist, who then referred her to the medical center. Her 90-year-old husband drove her to the medical center on Tuesday. You anticipate she will be discharged to home on the fourth postoperative day, as is standard procedure. She is learning to transfer to and from bed and toilet to wheelchair. Table 2-1 shows examples of application in clinical practice that are not complete but are intended to provide only a partial example for each. Study of these examples can provide ideas or suggestions for use in clinical practice. Readers are encouraged to develop further detail as appropriate to their practice. How to cite Historical Development of Nursing, Essay examples

The leadership Journey of Every Leader Free Sample for Students

Question: Write a Report on 21st Century Leadership. Answer: Introduction From the last 25 years, there has been a lot of change in the business environment which has changed the way business is conducted. The technological modernization, and its regular improvement, and the advent of the internet have augmented the speed of globalization. It has fetched a grid of knowledge-based culture, which is inter-linked through online applications (Barnes, 2010). As with the significance of this varying business backgrounds on leadership are that there is a necessity to express the new requirements for the 21st century leadership. This report will outline the critical literature review on the 21st century Leadership. It will summarize the leadership theories with the traditional theories and will contrast, compare and critically analyses the academic research on the topic of 21st century leadership. Literature Review The 21st century leadership definition can be sketched, as, collaboration procedure amongst the leader, the atmosphere and the admirers. It is now a procedure that contains the preparation of the apparitions due to assimilated situational information and combines admirers to conjointly accomplish these visualizations. Numerous classifications, explanations, theories and definitions have been done by scholars and researchers about the leadership of 21st century. Substantial effort has been done in classifying and clarifying the diverse magnitudes of active leadership and thus producing a significant managerial research of leadership patterns and performances (Bush, 2012). Many examiners of leadership traits have established consent that the development of thinking over the years has created a certainty that leadership is an adaptable and accommodating development course (Burns, 2012). Literature about leadership exposes that concepts of leadership have been redefined and altered with the way of time and none of the concept is entirely unrelated (Davies, 2002). The 21st century type of leadership applied in the functions of organizations entails a high grade of accuracy, sensitivity, self-assurance level, care and practical expertise that is unlike from the traditional and simple management oriented portfolios. According to Gilbert 2000, the understanding of leadership initiates with methodical supervision that outlines the progression of leadership philosophies through the superiority movement on the ethnic based, morals based, and trust-constructed relationship models. The author stated that people are spiritual by nature and leaders in the 21st century have to embrace a leadership style that has to be based on the traditional models beside with the emphasis on beliefs, communal, facility and religiousness (Guthrie and Callahan, 2016). Ciulla 2004 stated that respectable leadership has to be evaluated on two magnitudes, namely, ethically good and technologically effective. However, the problem is in finding the both qualities in the same person. The study of Ciulla stated that issue is not that the leaders should be held to high moral standard but they have to hold to the same standard with the rest of the staffs or people (Guthrie and Callahan, 2016). We usually hope that leaders who hav e a higher rate of success have high standards than the average person. An effective leader is one who is can bring the change in a positive way. With various examples that range from Machiavelli to Mahatma Gandhi, the study of Ciulla states that leadership requires a mixture of humility and confidence (Hill and Stephens, 2005). A good leadership is a call for the individuals who are confident enough to ask for help and can admit that they are wrong and can invite discussion and debate with their followers and superiors. Leadership theory can be progressed from the philosophy that leaders are natural or designed by nature to be in their character at a specific time to a replication of convinced traits that predict a prospective for leadership (Davies, 2002). The maturity or group would control the most of the operational style of leadership. The established four styles of leadership that are of participating, selling, delegating and selling have the significance of the styles with the maturity level of subordinates. In the article, the challenges of leadership in the modern world 2007, author Bennis and Warren reflected on the modern tendencies in the leadership model and its present eminence and social background (Leadership for 21st century learning, 2013). The author has confidence in that a good leadership has emotional impact the condition of his or her followers lives. The article stated that leadership is eventually about the standards and every leader has a schedule, an ambition and determina tion to accomplish that ambition grounded on the basis of his or her standards (Leadership for 21st century learning, 2013). Thus principles are measure of the every framework of leadership. But according to Duggar 2009, people with truthfulness are demarcated as ones that can be considered as leaders (Leadership for 21st century learning, 2013). At the corporate levels, integrity is about leaders that have developed a corporate culture that provides consistency, trust and predictable results. The leadership journey of every leader start with the understanding of their own life tales. Dependable leaders structure their tales in unique ways that permit them to see themselves not as impassive spectators but as persons who learns from the involvements. These leaders take a time to scrutinize their understandings and in doing so they grow themselves as a leader. The leadership growth for the 21st century is all-inclusive (Kelly, 2006). It is centered in collections or societies rather than persons that engage the group in emotion (O'Connell, 2014). From the 21st century point of view, leaderships expansion changes from separate focused to share focused. It has changed from separate leadership growth platforms to leadership platforms that are entrenched in existing issues recognized by the contributors in the course. In the 21st century, the utmost effective leaders will struggle on supporting superior portrayal by bring into line the publics around work and ethics and bestowin g leaders at all stages while having concentration on helping the consumers and cooperate with each other within and all the way through the establishments (Morrison, 2007). Leaders in the modern era have to achieve their intent for the organization with a strong focus on integrity, ethics that must be built on the foundation of values, all of which are necessary for long term success and corporate sustainability. Leadership can be observed, as the separate and communal response to alter the world for improved. For the current challenging business situation, the knowledge of leadership approach is very much important for the unforeseen and unprecedented events (O'Connell, 2014). Leadership has become very important for todays business due to its enormous complexity and accelerating change. The 21st century leadership is the viewpoint of leadership that aims to revert on the current business challenges and opportunities. With the long-drawn-out standard of leadership, it assimilates the concepts and customs from a widespread range of restraints and customs to substitute the applied acquaintance and transformative modification in the service of the world. The 21st century leadership is more than the activities, personalities and patterns of personalities (Penney, 2011). It is now viewed as the process in which everyone participates. The appearance of this viewpoint of leadership includes a full range of morals and adopts a variety of dimensions. The 21st century form of leadership has the capabilities and services which are endorsed in the various activities of life in framed ways. These embrace the perilous, inventive and structures thinking, communication, self-awareness and facilitation of the team and its combined procedures (Penney, 2011). For developing this view point of leadership, an overall orientation is necessary that must contain inward and outward alignment in including the person that is affianced in the system. In 21st century, the prosperous leaders will emphasis on nourishing superiority presentation by assigning and by bringing people into line with mission and standards authorizing them at all stages while directed on helping the consumers (Leadership for 21st century learning, 2013). Customary leaders thought that they could explain the difficulty of aligning with rule books and training platforms but where shocked when people deviated. The 21st century leaders enable the leaders of all stages joined with cultured responsibility to safeguard that the assurances are met. To promote the value based leadership, 21st century leadership has to establish a leadership culture of integrity. This entails weaving values and ethics in decision making process and considering the interests not only for the stock holders but also for the stockholders of the industries (Slavkin, 2010). The 21st century leaders are proactively capturing the knowledge of traditional leadership theories in order to gene rate the visions. Organization in this century is exposed to the external dynamism. The only way to be competitive and sustainable in the current business environment is by remaining flexible on all levels of the organization. Conclusion In summary, the 21st century leadership can be described as the varied and integrative dimensional opinion of leadership that is grounded in associations. With shared views and objectives, leadership brings new ways of being, knowing and doing while acknowledging the development nature of human life. The 21st century leadership is focused on towards collective provision, the social upright and maintaining balance to individuals and environment. The study concluded that the 21st century leadership has the capabilities and services which are endorsed in the various activities of life in framed ways such as thinking, communication, self-awareness and facilitation of the team and its combined procedures. References Barnes, J. (2010). Extending traditional 21st-century leadership skills. Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(4), pp.111-112. Burns, J. (2012). Leadership. 1st ed. New York, NY: Open Road Integrated Media. Bush, T. (2012). Leadership and Research in the 21st Century. Educational Management Administration Leadership, 40(4), pp.421-422. Davies, A. (2002). Focus on LeadershipServant-Leadership for the 21st Century. Long Range Planning, 35(4), pp.434-436. Guthrie, K. and Callahan, K. (2016). Liberal Arts: Leadership Education in the 21st Century. New Directions for Higher Education, 2016(174), pp.21-33. Hill, R. and Stephens, D. (2005). The Multiplicity of Selves and Selves Management: A Leadership Challenge for the 21st Century. Leadership, 1(1), pp.127-140. Kelly, S. (2006). Leadership Refrains: Patterns of Leadership. Leadership, 2(2), pp.181-201. Leadership for 21st century learning. (2013). 1st ed. Paris: OECD. Morrison, A. (2007). Leadership diversity and leadership challenge. Leadership in Action, 12(3), pp.1-4. O'Connell, P. (2014). A simplified framework for 21st century leader development. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(2), pp.183-203. Penney, S. (2011). Voices of the future: Leadership for the 21st century. Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(3), pp.55-62. Slavkin, H. (2010). Leadership for health care in the 21st Century: A personal perspective. Journal of Healthcare Leadership, p.35.

The Longest Day vs. Saving Private Ryan free essay sample

A personal comparison between two movies regarding the horrors of WWII and how they are similar while being very different. The comparison of two WWII movies and how they are both very important in teaching the history of what The Greatest Generation did for us and freedom. For my assignment, I have chosen to compare, contrast, and review two of my favorite war movies. As a historical preservationist, I enjoy watching movies relating to American and world history,but I also have a bad habit of scrutinizing them for errors. Is the character wearing the correct uniform? Did that really take place or was it made up for the movie? I felt that these two movies, which both dealt with the time around June 6, 1944 (D-Day), would be a good pair to look at from the old Hollywood style and the new television age and beyond movie style.

CDL Guide Indiana, Iowa, and Illinois

CDL Guide Indiana, Iowa, and Illinois This article is useful for anyone who wants to get your CDL in Indiana, Iowa or Illinois. If you want to learn about earning a CDL at other states, we have put together a comprehensive guide on how to get a commercial driver’s license in every state of the country. IndianaTo get a CDL  you must:be at least 18 years old if you will be  transporting property within state lines and 21 years old if you will be transporting peoplehave held an Indiana driver’s license, chauffeur’s license,  or public passenger chauffeur’s license  for at least one yearpresent documents of identification proving your identity, lawful status, Social Security number, and Indiana residencypass  the  appropriate  knowledge  test for  the  vehicle type that you plan to operateKnowledge Tests RequiredCommercial  vehicle drivers: General knowledge testSchool bus drivers: School bus endorsement test and passenger transport test  All bus drivers: Passenger transpor t testVehicle with air brakes:  Air brakes testCombination of vehicles: Combination vehicle testDrivers transporting hazardous material: Hazardous material testDrivers transporting liquids in bulk: Tanker testDrivers pulling double or triple trailers: Doubles/triples testYou may  receive only  three  CDL permits in  two years, and a CDL  learner’s permit is valid for six months.  Those with a  CDL learner’s permit may operate a commercial motor vehicle only when accompanied by a valid CDL  holder who has the proper class and endorsement(s).IowaTo get a CDL  you must:be 18 years oldprovide proof of full name, date of birth, Social Security number, and citizenship, permanent residency, or an I-94 documentproof of Iowa residencypass a vision screening testobtain and hold a commercial learner’s permit (CLP) for at least 2 weeks prior to your applicationcertify the vehicle type you plan to driveSteps to Obtaining a CDL1. Pass the knowledge test re quired for the commercial vehicle you want to operateGeneral knowledge for any CDLCombination vehicle for Class AAir brakePassengerSchool busDoubles/TriplesHazmatTankIowa operator (if applicable)2. Obtain a CLP3. Pass the required skills and driving test, which is comprised of 3 partsPre-trip vehicle inspection, making sure your vehicle is safe to driveSkills test, which tests maneuvers around cones and backin maneuversA driving testIllinoisTo get a CDL you must:be 18 years oldhold a valid Ohio State diver’s licenseprovide a valid Social Security cardmeet minimum medical standards as established by federal and state regulationspass the knowledge and skills testsTestingThe knowledge test is a written test required for each class of vehicle you hope to drive, each endorsement, and removing an air brake restriction.The skill test is a 90-minute driving test comprised of a pre-inspection and a road test. You will need to arrive with a vehicle appropriate to the class of license y ou seek.ExemptionsThe law exempts these categories from the CDL:A â€Å"Farm Truck†Fire EquipmentPublic Safety VehicleRecreational VehicleCommercial Motor VehicleVehicle Operated for Military PurposeNonbusiness Commercial Motor VehicleVehicle Designed for Transporting Goods

Nursing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Nursing - Assignment Example The nurse failed to follow the 6 rights prior to the administration of a medication. This went against the required nursing practice. The consequence of this act put the patient’s life at risk because the patient had a negative effect from the dosage administered. The nurse went ahead and ignored filling out the incident report. The physician and the supervisor get information from filled incident reports. Failing to fill implied that the nurse was concealing certain crucial information. The nurse’s act to ignore the incident report violated rules of practice in caregiving. It further put the patient’s life at risk which is opposite to what nurses should do. Patents are entitles to a healthy life, and the caregivers should do their best to see this done. However, the nurse’s actions did not match this requirement. Failing to fill out the incident report did not depict an aspect of duty to care, since it encompasses all that is required of the nurse. The nurse who failed to verify the correct dosage as a witness is also implicated in the failure to fulfill duty to care. This is a procedure carried out in order to ensure that the patient’s life is not endangered, given the practices undertaken by the nurses. This nurse ignores her duty and the result is a negative effect on the patient. This does not only raise concerns in the care giving institutions, but also externally, since patients have a right to proper treatment and administration of medication. Concealing what had unfolded during shift change would complicate the matter even further. During shift report, the nurse had already presented what had happened, evidenced by the fact that the patient was in ICU. Contradiction of information between that presented during shift report and the one the nurse is to present by filling out the incident report would require that investigation into the matter be undertaken. Nursing ethics require transparency and accountability (Ginny, 2009).

5step Approach to Biomedical Science Research Essay

5step Approach to Biomedical Science Research - Essay Example But these molecular determinants were undefined. In an another report thapsigiargin , a sesquiterpene lactone inhibits both mammalian and malarial SERCAs. These findings led to hypothesis that artermisins interact with a region of PfATP6 that binds thapsigargin-binding cleft of malarial and mammalian SERCAs, and are the determinant of the arteminisinin.Based on the previous data and literature, the authors identified PfATP6 as a target site. Using bioinformatics the researchers compared the amino acid sequences of mammalian and malarial SERCAs, and found that the leu263 residue is unique along with few more amino acid. After identification, different mutant were constructed to determine the affinity of arteminsins towards these mutated forms to establish its role of each amino acid towards arteminsins sensitivity.To determine the role of leu263 and other amino acids in PfATP6 doain. Different mutant of PfATP6 were express in Xenopus oocyte and functionality test were performed. It wa s shown that in case of altered Leu263 sensitivity decreased to almost three fold. Whereas alteration of other amino acids along with leu263 lead to 10 fold decrease in sensitivity. Similarly, introduction of Leu263 in non-sensitive sps. like Plasmodium vivax and P. berghei ether increased or decreased sensitivity.

Comparison of Gender Wage Gap in Japan and Germany

Comparison of Gender Wage Gap in Japan and Germany In all of the advanced capitalist nations women were experiencing the contradictions of an education which seemed to promise self-fulfilment, and a labour market based on inequalities of class and gender (Brinton, 1993, as cited in Threlfall, 1996, p. 270). This statement has been made more than fifteen years ago and indicated that women were not treated equally regarding work and pay. However, have circumstances changed since then? If yes, did they improve or worsen and to which extend? The aim of this paper is to analyse the existence of a gender wage gap in Japan and Germany and to evaluate possible reasons for it. Furthermore, an outlook for the future will be given at the end. 2. Gender Wage Gap in Japan The Japanese law system is regulated by the Japanese Standards Labour Law which was enacted after World War II in 1947. This Japanese Standards Labour Law contained a clause which should protect working women. In reality, this clause prevented women from working excessive overtime and during nights (Sama and Papamarcos, 2000). This is why women could not climb up the greasy pole. Furthermore, this law prohibited that women were treated differently on the basis of sex (Threlfall, 1996). On top of this, as stated by Threlfall (1996), the Standards Labour Law covered only equal wages but not promotion or retirement. During this time, employers could be sued for discrimination, but this was an expensive and time-consuming act as each case had to be dealt with separately. Additionally, many companies circumvented the danger of lawsuits by new grading of job titles (Threlfall, 1996). This changed in 1986 when the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) was passed (Sama and Papamarcos, 2000 ). This law encouraged companies in Japan to treat employees equally in all aspects like wages, promotion, recruitment and hiring (Threlfall, 1996). Unfortunately, the EEOL contained no penalties for continuing discrimination and also its amendment, which was enacted in 1999, did not really improve the inequalities regarding wage and promotion between men and women (Sama and Papamarcos, 2000). Figure 1 clarifies these important labour laws in Japan. Japanese Labour Standards Law of 1947 Contained protective clause for working women. Came under scrutiny in 1970s as a possible deterrent to womens career advancement. Equal Employment Opportunity Law (EEOL) of 1986 Enacted in 1987, the EEOL called for equal pay for equal work. No penalties for violators. Employers asked only to make a good effort. June 1997 Amendment to the EEOL Enacted in 1999, the amendment lifted restrictions on midnight, holiday, and overtime work by women in effect since the 1947 Labor Standards Law. Further stiffened warnings against companies found in violation of the EEOL. No penalties attached. According to Selmer (2001), the Japanese wage system is based on seniority (pp. 236-237). This indicates that promotion and pay rise are automatic and no subject to job duties or merit (Selmer, 2001). That means that employees get promotion and pay rise when they reach certain age levels. The gender wage gap is measured as the median wage of men minus the median wage of women, expressed as a proportion of the median wage of men (Evans, 2002, p. 191). As stated by the World Economic Forum (2005), no country has yet managed to eliminate the gender gap (p. 1). According to OECD (2007), the womens medium wage in Japan is two thirds of that received by men. This represents twice the OECD average. Figure 2 displays the gender wage gap of several countries. Blau and Kahn (2003) stated that the gender wage gap in Japan is up to 85% (as cited in Johnes and Tanaka, 2006). This means that women earn up to 85% less than men. Recent sources indicated a gender wage gap of 65.9% for 2007 (Japanese Institute for Labour Policy and Training, 2008). The differences in the gender wage gap are subject to different data used for analysis. Some calculations include part-time workers, which are mainly female and others base their calculations on full-time employees only. As already stated above, Japanese firms discriminate on the grounds of gender when paying employees. This chapter evaluates several reasons for the gender wage gap in Japan. First of all, many workers in Japan get a lifetime employment contract (Ishii, 2000). Japanese firms make huge investments in employee training and that is why they want their employees to stay as long with the company as possible. Therefore, the duration of attachment to a firm plays an important role when negotiating wages. As it is most often foreseeable that women will not stay with one company for their whole life, because they want to start a family one day, they pretty much never get a lifetime contract (Ishii, 2000). Therefore, as stated by Ihsii (2000), companies make no investment in human capital when they employ women as they think they will not benefit in the future from this investment as women sooner or later leave the company. The second reason for the gender wage gap is based on different experiences. Miyoshi (2007) argued that there is no gender pay gap when people are employed directly after school, college or university. But when employees accumulate work experience, the wage gap enlarges. Miyoshi (2007) explains this fact by referring to the full-time work experience and seniority. The more full-time work experience an employee has, the more valuable he is. As women often have less work experience because of child-raising obligations and only part-time jobs, the get less money and less promotion than their male counterpart. Different characteristics of workers represent the third reason for the gender wage gap in Japan. Johnes and Tanaka (2006) explained that different characteristics like age, work experience, education and duration of work are one reason for the gender pay gap in Japan. They agree with Miyoshi when stating that differences in work experience are the reason for pay inequalities, but they extend the argument by adding other characteristics like age and education. The greater part of the gender wage gap in Japan can be explained by referring to the reasons stated above. However, there is also a smaller part of the earnings gap that can not be explained. According to Kawaguchi (2006), this part can be attributed to sex discrimination. 4. Gender Wage Gap in Germany Regarding German law, article 3 paragraph 2 of the German Constitution of 1949 states that men and women have equal rights (Maier, 2007). Furthermore, paragraph 3 states that no one should be discriminated on the grounds of gender. This right for equal treatment and payment was not practiced in reality as special wage groups for women were allowed in collective agreements until 1955 (Maier, 2007). Furthermore, Maier (2007) stated that most employees in Germany are paid according to these collective agreements, although the coverage is declining (p. 11). In 1980, a new paragraph was added to the German Constitution which demanded equal pay for work of equal value (Winter, 1998). But this amendment brought no chance. Later, in 2006, the General Equal Treatment Act was passed and paragraph 7 prohibited unequal treatment within any employment relationship (Maier, 2007, p. 18). This law stated that lower wages for women are not justified if they are based on gender. Unfortunately, German law still lacks legal measures to control the implementation of equal wage principles. Furthermore, Maier (2007) stated that it is not easy for women to claim their right for equal pay. Class actions are not allowed and thus, all women must bring their individual claim to court. As this is often an expensive and time-consuming process, many plaintiffs refrain from filing a suit (Maier, 2007). That is why Germany has a significant high gender wage gap, although the German government has a female chancellor (Plass, 2008). In reality, as stated by Plass (2008), Germany has one of the highest gender pay gaps on the European continent. Furthermore, more than 90 percent of all working women are discriminated and earn between 80 and 210 cents less per hour (Gradà ­n, del Rà ­o and Cantà ³, 2006). Legal norms for equal pay in Germany are displayed in figure 3. According to the German government statistics bureau, Destatis, working women in Germany earned 24 percent less than men in 2006 (as cited in Plass, 2008). As stated by Maier (2007), this number has been reduced to 22 percent in 2007. Whereas the average difference in pay is 15 percent in the European Union (Spiegel Online International, 2008). 5. Reasons for the Gender Wage Gap in Germany Several reasons contribute to the large gender wage gap in Germany. First of all, as mentioned by Lauer (n.d.), women often do not possess the same education and skills as men do. Employers who place value on these exact skills are likely to pay women less in order to compensate the lack of skills and knowledge. Furthermore, Lauer (n.d.) also mentioned that skills and knowledge may be rewarded differently between men and women. Meaning that women with the same educational background and knowledge will earn less because these identical skills are not rewarded the same way by the employer. In addition, Maier (2007) identified the lack of legal barriers against low wages as a reason for the gender pay differences in Germany. As there exists no general minimum wage in Germany, and as the country has almost three million unemployed persons (Bundesagentur fà ¼r Arbeit, 2008), it is easy for employers to fill a low-paid vacancy. Furthermore, Lauer (n.d.) identified occupational crowding of women in low paid occupations as another source for earning inequalities between men and women in Germany. There is also the fact that there is a low proportion of working women in highly paid positions (Maier, 2007). Concluding, Maier (2007) stated that factors like age, education and work experience present only a very unimportant reason for wage discrimination. Again, the unexplained part of the gender wage gap can be attributed to discrimination based on gender (Lauer, n.d.). 6. Similarities and Differences between Japan and Germany After analyzing the gender wage gap in Japan and Germany and its reasons, several similarities as well as differences can be pointed out. First of all, there is a significant high gender wage gap in both countries, although the difference in earnings is higher in Japan with around 35 percent compared to Germany with about 22 percent (Maier, 2007). Nevertheless, the German earnings gap is 7 percent higher than the European Union average (Spiegel Online International, 2008). Both countries put emphasis on the characteristics of employees. Age, work experience and education are important when negotiating wages. As women often have less education or work experience than men (Lauer, n.d.), they get paid less than their male counterpart. Furthermore, part of the gender wage gap in both countries is an unexplained part which can be attributed to gender discrimination (Kawaguchi, 2006; Lauer, n.d.). Differences between the two countries can be found in the fact that Japanese employers discriminate when investing in human capital. Due to the Japanese lifetime employment, many employers consider rather carefully whether to employ women or not. As it is obvious to them that women will leave the company some day for child-raising duties, they will thereby take away the human capital in which the company invested. 7. Conclusion Even if both countries enacted laws in the 80ies which should ensure equal pay for work of equal value, there is still a significant gender wage gap observable. Japan as well as Germany managed during the last to decades to narrow this gap, but this happened probably just because of the new laws which were enforced. When looking ahead, both countries will probably have a different future. Japan will stick to its lifetime employment system (Kato, 2001) and thereby will keep the earnings gap between men and women stable. The fact that more and more Japanese women decide to pursue their careers can possibly help in narrowing the gender pay gap (Fackler, 2007). Germany is likely to increase the gender pay gap as the coverage of collective agreements, which set equal wages for men and women, is declining (Maier, 2007). Furthermore, as long as there is no support from the government to implement the right for equal money for work of equal value, the gender wage gap will not be narrowed. 8. Bibliography , Blau, F. and Kahn, L. (2003). Understanding international differences in the gender pay gap. Journal of Labor Economics. Vol. 21, pp. 106-144. Brinton, M. (1993). Women and the economic miracle: gender and work in post-war Japan. Berkeley: Calif. Bundesagentur fà ¼r Arbeit (2008). Der Arbeits- und Ausbildungsmarkt in Deutschland (The work and education market in Germany) [online]. 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Available at: URL: http://www.kli.re.kr/ iira2004/pro/papers/HisakoISHII.pdf [Accessed 05 January 2009]. Japanese Institute for Labour Policy and Training (2008). Wages and labour costs [online]. Available at: URL: http://www.jil.go. jp/english/estatis/databook/2008/05.htm [Accessed 05 January 2009]. Johnes, G. and Tanaka, Y. (2006). Changes in gender wage discrimination in the 1990s: a tale of three different economies. Japan and the World Economy. Vol. 20, pp. 97-113. Kato, T. (2001). The end of lifetime employment in Japan?: evidence from national surveys and field research. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies. Vol. 15, pp. 489-514. Kawaguchi, D. (2006). A market test for sex discrimination: evidence from Japanese firm-level panel data. International Journal of Industrial Organization. Vol. 25, pp. 441-460. Lauer, C. (n.d.). Gender wage gap in West Germany: how far do gender differences in human capital matter? [online]. 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Human resource management in Japan. International Journal of Manpower. Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 235-243. Spiegel Online International (2008). German women earn a fifth less than men. Spiegel Online International, [online]. Available at: URL: http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518, 558526,00.html [Accessed 31 December 2008]. Threlfall, M. (1996). Mapping the womens movement. London: Verso. Winter, R. (1998). Gleiches Entgelt fà ¼r gleichwertige Arbeit: Ein Prinzip ohne Praxis (Equal pay for work of equal value: a principle without practice.). Baden-Baden. World Economic Forum (2005). Womens empowerment: measuring the global gender gap [online]. Available at: URL: http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Global_Competitiveness_Reports/Reports/gender_gap.pdf [Accessed 30 December 2008].